Approach–Avoidance Tendencies Across Societies: How Mobility and Competition Shape Human Motivation

Approach and avoidance are two foundational systems that drive human behavior. Although these systems are generally considered to be shaped by neurobiological factors, approach and avoidance tendencies vary systematically across societies. However, there is currently no framework that explains these cross-societal variations. We propose a socioecological framework to explain how environments with varying levels of relational mobility and societal competition shape individuals’ sensitivity toward reward (i.e., approach) or punishment (i.e., avoidance). Using five studies involving individuals from China, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States ( N = 3,639), we found a complex pattern of approach and avoidance tendencies across societies. Specifically, Japanese participants are more avoidance-oriented than U.S. participants, while Chinese and Taiwanese participants are as or more approach-oriented than their U.S. counterparts. These variations were associated with the ecologies of relational mobility and societal competition. Together, these findings offer a novel mobility–competition framework for understanding societal differences in human motivation.